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Scribo Writing Tips

Scribo connects with you to understand where your writing needs help and then delivers it instantly. These tips are linked to Scribo feedback but also available for all.

Scribo is a grades-saving writing improvement tool that helps build good writing skills. With instant personalised feedback about your writing, Scribo puts you in control of where and how you improve your skills.

Click on a topic or search for great tips to help you produce high-quality writing.

Long Sentences

Very long sentences can make your writing hard for your reader to follow. One occasional long sentence is OK, especially if it contains a quote. However, if you have lots of long sentences, your reader will find it hard to engage with your ideas. Where it makes sense to do so, break up long sentences into shorter sentences to improve the readability of your writing.

Some ideas to help you do this:

1. Remove unnecessary clauses Remove sentence starts such as "in my opinion", "as a matter of fact", "as far as I am concerned". They add nothing to your sentence.

2. Separate independent clauses Look for cohesive words such as "and" and see if the part after "and" can be written as an individual sentence.

3. Look for repetition and redundancy Look for places where you have repeated the same idea or used unnecessary words that you can easily remove.

Clear communication: simplify your sentences

Often without realizing it, we write long and complicated sentences, strung together with commas and other punctuation marks. If you really want to write for your reader, you need to write shorter and simpler sentences.

Here are a few pointers on how to write clear and effective sentences:

Keep your sentences fairly short
Tackle one main idea per sentence
Divide long sentences
Cut out unnecessary words to shorten sentences
Put things in subject-verb-object order
Keep the verb close to its subject and object
Use linking words and punctuation

Keep your sentences fairly short

A target to aim for: 15 to 20 words. That’s usually long enough to get your point across without losing your reader. Sentences of more than 25 words are often difficult to understand on first reading. And even the most seasoned reader will struggle to make sense of sentences longer than 30 words.

Of course, 15-to-20 isn’t a hard-and-fast rule. A document of only 17-word sentences will seem monotonous. And too many short sentences will sound choppy. Varying your sentence length will help keep your writing lively and your reader interested.

Tackle one main idea per sentence

This is an easy way to ensure that your sentences stay short and to reduce the risk of mistakes in your mechanics.

Divide long sentences

This 55-word sentence below is difficult to understand on first reading because it contains too much information:

The amendment provides for pension benefits to be fully funded as they are earned by employees and for the basic pension accounts to be combined with the portion of the Supplementary Retirement Benefits Account that relates to each plan so that all future benefits, including all indexing payments, can be charged to the appropriate accounts.

You could rewrite it this way:

Under the amended policy, employees’ pension benefits will be fully funded as they are earned. Moreover, the basic pension account for each plan will absorb the portion of the Supplementary Retirement Benefits Account that applies to that plan. In this way, all future benefits, including indexing payments, can be charged to the appropriate accounts.

Cut out unnecessary words to shorten sentences

Instead of this :

Slower labour force growth may attenuate somewhat the problem of unemployment over the next decade, since there will no longer be a need to absorb large numbers of new workers entering the labour market.

Write this:

With fewer younger workers entering the job market, unemployment may drop over the next decade.

Put things in subject-verb-object order

Standard sentence order is the easiest to understand.

Instead of this:

The following are the requirements that employees must meet. (object-subject-verb)

Write this:

Employees must meet the following requirements. (subject-verb-object)

Keep the verb close to its subject and object

It is distracting and confusing when non-essential information separates the verb from its subject or its object.

Instead of this:

The director, after a lengthy consultation process with the commissioner, decided to make some recommendations. (The verb, decided, is separated from the subject, director.)

Or this:

The director decided, after a lengthy consultation process with the commissioner, to make some recommendations. (The verb, decided, is separated from the object, to make some recommendations.)

Write this:

After a lengthy consultation process with the commissioner, the director decided to make some recommendations.

Use linking words and punctuation

Coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and certain punctuation marks (comma, semicolon, colon) can help connect ideas in two parts of a sentence.

He missed the concert: tickets sold out before he got to the box office.
I would have checked the file, but the cabinet was locked.
Marie attends the meetings and writes the minutes.

Writing short, simple sentences helps you express your ideas more clearly.

Sticky Sentences

https://www.ingramspark.com/blog/how-to-identify-sticky-sentences-in-your-writing: by Kyle A. Massa

How to Identify Sticky Sentences in Your Writing

"There are some really good reasons that many writers maybe might not want to have a few too many sticky sentences in their personal or professional writing."

Are you ready to abandon this post? With an opening sentence like that, I wouldn't blame you. We call that a "sticky sentence." It’s grammatically correct, but it's clunky and hard to follow. It wobbles around before it gets to the point, and it includes irrelevant information that should be cut. In this post, we’ll explore how you can identify (and repair) sticky sentences in your writing.

What is a Sticky Sentence?

Every sentence contains two kinds of words: working words and glue words.

Working Words

These are the words that carry the majority of the meaning in your sentence. They might be verbs or nouns, adjectives or adverbs, but they contain essential information for your reader.

In the sentence below, the working words are in bold:

Maya sweltered in the blazing sun and wondered if the afternoon would ever end.

Glue Words

Glue words are like the scaffolding holding your sentence together. They don’t have much meaning on their own, but they are essential in connecting and giving meaning to your working words. Here are a few of the classics:

It’s all a percentage game.

A little glue goes a long way. In fact, statistics show that published texts have a low percentage of glue words compared to working words. That's because experienced writers edit their work so it contains as few inessential words as possible.

A good rule of thumb is to aim for less than 40% glue words per sentence. If your sentence contains more than 40%, you should probably rewrite it to increase clarity.

Let’s look at an example:

Sticky: There is a lake out in the middle of the woods where locals go to get away from the tourists who come take over all of the village’s restaurants and shops in the summer.

Glue Index: 70.4%

Rewrite: Fleeing the summer tourist season, locals escape to Monehan Lake.

Glue Index: 22.2%

That's better! The rewrite contains a much smaller percentage of glue words and it provides more specific information than that sticky sentence.

Just remember to use your best judgment. Sometimes a sentence will be sticky and it’s the only way it works. Just think of it as a flag that you should give it a second look to make sure it can’t be rewritten in a simpler way.

Now that we know how to recognise sticky sentences and glue words, let’s explore various ways to de-stick them.

How to Unstick Your Sentences

When faced with a sticky sentence, ask yourself the following questions:

Does this sentence contain nonessential information?

Sticky: As soon as I read King‘s Misery in my class, I decided that I liked it even more than I liked The Shining, which I read last year.

Glue Index: 52.8%

Rewrite: I preferred King’s Misery to The Shining.

Four points about the above sentence:

In the first example, you don’t need to say that you read a book if you are giving an opinion about that book. It’s understood that you read it.
You don’t need to say you decided that you liked it. You can just say that you liked it. It is understood that you made that decision.
“Preferred” is a more concise way to say you like something even more.
The primary point in the sentence is your preference for one book over the other. It’s unlikely that the specific times and locations of when you read the books are important to your point.

As such, all that information is nonessential. Cut it.

Does this sentence contain more than one point?

Sticky: As Henry was running to try and catch the train that would take him to his new home in Brighton, he remembered that he had forgotten to say goodbye to Elizabeth and he knew that her feelings would be very hurt.

Glue index: 53.7%

Rewrite: Henry sprinted to catch the train that would take him to his new life in Boston. Elizabeth flashed in his mind. He had forgotten to say goodbye. She would never forgive him.

In the first example, we tried to squeeze too much information into one sentence. The three key points—he might miss his train, he forgot to say goodbye, and Elizabeth will be hurt—are all less impactful because they are not given enough space. In the rewrite, these points are more evocative for the reader.

Have you put the essential point in the second half?

Sticky: Ever since she had been a small child growing up in rural New Hampshire, she‘d had the unlikely dream of being an astronaut.

Glue index: 54.2

Rewrite: She had always dreamed of becoming an astronaut: an uncommon goal in rural New Hampshire.

When you write your sentences back-to-front, it takes more scaffolding to hold it in place. It also means that your reader has to wade through a lot of glue before they reach your main point. In most cases, you can improve readability by putting your essential information first.

Is the main point of your sentence clear and easy to understand?

Sticky: There were some really good reasons why Amy decided that it might be a bad idea to pursue her master’s degree, even though she thought that the advanced degree could potentially have some sort of benefit in the future.

Glue index: 55.0

Rewrite: Amy decided not to pursue her master’s degree, even though an advanced degree could benefit her career in the future.

When you have too many glue words in your sentence, it can make your main point hard to identify. By boiling down your work to exactly what you need to say, your sentence will be easier for your reader to understand.

Just Ask the Experts

"Omit needless words" — William Strunk

Great advice, isn't it? I wish I could take credit, but those words were written by William Strunk in his essential writing handbook, The Elements of Style. The advice is simple: find words with no purpose and delete them. Consider the following sentence.

Sticky: I came in on the train because I don't really like flying in airplanes all that much.

By omitting needless words, we can reduce the stickiness of this sentence and thereby make it far more readable. How about this?

Rewrite: I hate flying so I took the train instead.

Much better. Many of the glue words we used before, such as "came," "do," "really," and "that," added weight without adding meaning, and were therefore needless. By omitting them, we've created a much clearer sentence.

But Mr. Strunk wouldn't let us stop there. We must apply his principle to non-glue words as well. Take his quote: “Omit needless words”. Strunk could've written, "Don't use needless words." That's technically not a sticky sentence. Yet if he wrote that, he wouldn't be taking his own advice. "Omit" shaved one word and solidified his point.

I’m probably making too big a deal over a one-word savings. But when we learn to do this consistently in our work, it sharpens our prose and boosts our clarity.

“Kill your darlings” — William Faulkner

Remember William Faulkner’s famous writing advice, “Kill your darlings”? While I don’t recommend murder, being objective and honest with yourself is essential when you self-edit. Consider this paragraph:

There was a view into the valley that she thought was the most amazing view she had ever laid eyes on, and it was, she knew. It was. The leaves of the trees were sparkling emeralds and the sky that was above was blue as the eyes of a newborn child. She was ready for a new day and a new chance for this life of hers. She promised herself she would have it.

Be honest with yourself. If you stretch a description because you think it makes you sound smart, shorten it. If a sentence is flagged and your heart breaks a little because it’s one you love, do your best to look at it objectively and consider other options. You may find an even better way to express the same idea.

Again, the writer has the final say. Just because a sentence is sticky doesn't necessarily mean it needs cutting. Just keep these statistics in mind when making your final decisions.

Sticky Sentences: Summing It All Up

Writing is all about making sure that your ideas and thoughts are handed over to the reader in the least convoluted way possible.

Sorry. Let me rephrase that.

Writing is hard. Make reading it easier by refining (or cutting) your sticky sentences. Doing so makes your work stronger, clearer, and brief. Now that’s the sign of good writing!

Improve sentence readability

https://readable.com/blog/improve-the-readability-of-your-writing-in-60-seconds/

10 quick strategies to improve readability

From using concise words and sentences to using similes and metaphors to engage readers, writers can improve the readability of their copy in a number of ways. Below are ten tips to help you improve the readability of your writing in 60 seconds.

1 | use concise sentences

Short sentences help readers absorb information quickly and easily. Based on several studies, press associations in the USA have laid down a readability table.

Their survey shows readers find sentences of 8 words or less very easy to read; 11 words, easy; 14 words fairly easy; 17 words standard; 21 words fairly difficult; 25 words difficult and 29 words or more, very difficult.

2 | choose short words whenever possible

The length of the words you choose is just as important as the length of your sentences. Using words with multiple syllables can make content more difficult to understand, increasing the likelihood that your readers may miss your key points.

Choosing short words is recommended as they can help readers grasp the meaning of your copy more easily.

3 | avoid complicated language

Your audience should never have to stop reading to try to decipher your message. Stopping to contemplate the meaning of complicated language puts a damper on the reader experience and leaves the reader prone to distractibility.

The best way to avoid this phenomenon is to use clear, simple language to convey your message. Writing in plain language helps your audience understand your content the first time they read your copy.

4 | if you must use obscure language, provide an explanation

There are times when using complicated language may be appropriate or even required. For instance, quoting an industry expert or outlining key technical points is sometimes necessary.

However, you should also include a description or explanation of the obscure phrase in parentheses after the phrase. Failure to provide a description can cause the reader to lose interest in the copy.

5 | use the active voice rather than the passive voice

Active voice is recommended for most non-scientific writing because it prevents sentences from becoming too complex or lengthy.

Writers can convey action in active voice using fewer words than active voice, creating a more concise copy.

6 | break up your content into small paragraphs

Facing a massive wall of uninterrupted text can produce unintended consequences among readers. Rather than sparking a reader’s interest, lengthy paragraphs can cause readers’ eyes to glaze over or cause them to prematurely abandon your copy.

Experts recommend the following guidelines when constructing paragraphs:

Each paragraph should focus on one single idea or concept
Include three to five sentences in each paragraph
Look at each page to see if your paragraphs are balanced

7 | include headings to transition from one section of copy to the next

Headings provide your audience with an idea of the content they are about to read. More important, headings promote readability in the following ways:

Headings provide an organized framework for content
They separate copy into manageable sections
Headings make it easy for busy professionals to scan your copy
They make copy more visually appealing

8 | use similes, analogies, and metaphors to engage readers

Keeping readers engaged is one of the greatest challenges a writer faces. Fostering engagement requires writers to make content relevant and interesting to readers. Similes, metaphors, and analogies help bring life to dry topics and are useful in explaining technical content.

9 | measure the readability of your copy

A key step to take before finalizing your copy is to assess its effectiveness using a proven scoring system. Check the Library section of Scribo to get a readability reading per paragraph and sentence:

Conduct a sentiment analysis to assess whether your copy is positive, negative or neutral
Measure the time it takes to read your copy
Screen for keyword density

10 | have a second set of eyes review your copy

Asking a colleague or friend to review your copy will help identify grammatical mistakes and other errors that you may have missed. More important, this measure will help ensure that your copy is visually appealing and that it properly conveys key points to readers.

Show, Don't Tell

Telling emotions rather than showing emotions is a common mistake in writing. Many inexperienced writers tell their readers about a character's emotions instead of using language to describe the emotions instead. While there will certainly be points in your writing where it makes more sense to tell rather than show, showing should be your primary goal as a writer. You want to create a vivid picture in your readers' mind that will engross them in your writing.

Consider the following examples:

When Katie saw her test grade, she was embarrassed.
When Katie saw the big, red “F” on her work, her cheeks flushed. She crumpled the test and hid it in her desk, hoping no one noticed.

Both examples communicate the same point: that Katie felt bad about her test score. In the first, the author tells the reader that Katie is embarrassed. In the second, the author still shares that Katie is embarrassed, but does so by showing details (her flushed cheeks) and actions (hiding the test in her desk), creating a more engaging and vivid experience for the reader.

How “Show, Don’t Tell” Affects Your Readers

When you tell your readers everything your characters are thinking and feeling, you take away any nuance in their interpretation of your work. Showing, on the other hand, allows your readers to draw their own conclusions about your characters.

Let’s take a look at some examples of showing in popular literature:

The gasping pools were choked with ash and crawling muds, sickly white and grey, as if the mountains had vomited the filth of their entrails upon the lands about. High mounds of crushed and powdered rock, great cones of earth fire-blasted and poison-stained, stood like an obscene graveyard in endless rows, slowly revealed in the reluctant light.

In this passage from The Two Towers, J.R.R. Tolkien paints a vivid picture of Mordor’s terror. If he had just said, “Mordor was frightening,” the reader wouldn’t have such a visceral understanding of Mordor as a place. By showing, rather than telling, we get a specific sense of the danger that awaits the heroes as they venture into this place of doom.

Within forty minutes, the voice inside my head was screaming, "What have I gotten myself into?" I tried to ignore it, to hum as I hiked, though humming proved too difficult to do while also panting and moaning in agony and trying to remain hunched in that remotely upright position while also propelling myself forward when I felt like a building with legs.

In this passage from Wild, by describing her physical and mental anguish in detail, Cheryl Strayed helps the reader understand the depth of the pain and overwhelm she felt during her first few steps on the Pacific Crest Trail. If she had just said, “I was challenged by the trail,” the reader wouldn’t have as clear an idea of her struggle. The description here draws the reader into Strayed’s journey and brings them along.

How to Fix “Show, Don’t Tell” Issues in Your Writing

Here are some strategies to address this issue:

1. Try the “Camera Test”

The “Camera Test” is a great way to see if you’re showing the important parts of your story.

Ask yourself, “Can a camera see this?” If the answer is “no,” then you have some work to do. Consider the following example:

Tell-land is a peaceful kingdom with happy, prosperous citizens. The king is beloved by his people and both rich and poor live in harmony.

Can a camera see what Tell-land looks like? Not really! The camera would need much more information: is the kingdom by the sea? In the mountains? Are the streets paved with cobblestones? Bricks? What does living in harmony mean? What does it look like? Without a clear description, the camera (and your reader) will be left to fill in the gaps themselves.

If an area of your document is flagged as needing more “showing” ask yourself if it’s camera-ready. If it’s not, add in details that the camera could pick up.

2. Implement More Dialogue

Dialogue is one of the easiest ways to put more “showing” in your writing.

Dialogue is itself a “show.” Think about it: your characters will rarely say short, declarative sentences like, “I am mad! I am sad! I am frustrated!” Instead, their words will reflect their feelings and add more colour to their descriptions.

3. Focus on Actions

Say you have a character who is a liar. Rather than telling your readers that said character is a liar, think of how you can demonstrate that through actions.

Or, if one of your characters has remarkable prowess in battle, consider how that could be shown on the page. Think about what’s more engaging for your reader: to read “Sir Henry was a great knight” or to walk through paragraphs of description of Sir Henry’s legendary exploits.

4. Tell First, Then Show

Sometimes, the “show” descriptions just won’t come. That’s okay! During your first draft, focus on getting the “tells” down. That will help you sort out the action beats and character reactions through your scene.

Then, on your rewrites, revisit those “tell” scenes to add needed description. Remember the “Camera Test”: ask yourself what the camera would need to pick up on to make your scene shine.

When “Telling” Just Makes Sense

As with a lot of writing advice, “show, don’t tell” is a suggestion, not a rule. There are some instances when telling may make more sense and that’s okay.

Say, for instance, your character is travelling from one place to another. If nothing eventful or important happens on the trip, you don’t need to spend paragraphs describing every detail of the journey. It’s okay to simply get your character from Point A to Point B.

You’ll need to use your best judgment to decide if and how you should change your text.

Strong Verbs

Use Strong Verbs instead of Adverbs

Adverbs (those words that often end in -ly) modify verbs and sometimes adjectives. It’s fine to use adverbs occasionally, but it is much better to use a strong verb instead.

A strong verb is a better and more descriptive version of a basic verb that creates a stronger visual and can help create a mood for your writing.

Weak verbs are the “basic” forms of a specific action, like “walked” or “ran.” Strong verbs are a specified form of a broader action, like “stomped” or “bolted. So the main thing you need to remember when it comes to strong verbs vs weak verbs is how specific it is.

For example, instead of saying "he ran quickly" (quickly being the adverb), you could say "he sprinted" or "he bolted". Maybe the girl "spoke quietly" – how much more descriptive would it be to say "she whispered" or "she muttered".

Here are some examples of strong verbs to get you started:

Slam Strike Crash Slice

Smash Ram Smack Bang

Dash Bolt Charge Shoot

Bound Plunge Hurl Fling

Lob Carve Forge Sprint

How to Write a Thesis Statement

https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-a-thesis-statement(With Tips and Examples) By Indeed Editorial Team February 23, 2021

What is a thesis statement?

When writing a paper, crafting the thesis statement can seem like a secondary concern. However, your thesis is the most important element of your paper. It serves as the focus of your paper and is an incentive for your audience to continue reading.

Why are thesis statements important?

Thesis statements are found in the introductory paragraph of an essay and they serve to communicate the central theme of your paper, why it's important and introduce the arguments you will make to support this claim.

In other words, the primary purpose of a thesis statement is to present the essay's topic to the reader, introduce the audience to your position on the subject and provide a guide for the arguments you intend to make to support this belief or idea. Though the thesis statement is extremely useful for the reader, it also offers some benefits to the author, such as:

It can help you organize your argument so you can develop your points more clearly and effectively. It can help you test the significance and clarity of your points. Thesis statement categories When writing an essay, there are different styles to choose from that are based on content and intent. The same is true with thesis statements. There are two main categories: informative and persuasive. You will want to choose the style that best reflects the purpose of your paper.

Informative Rather than argue a point, an informative essay and thesis aim to inform the reader about a subject or process. These types of thesis statements should present the intentions of the essay and provide a guide to the eventual conclusion you will reach.
Persuasive A majority of essays are designed to take a position on a subject and then argue on behalf of this stance. This is found in narrative, argumentative and compare/contrast essays in which an opinion is stated and then the evidence is provided to prove its accuracy.
Types of thesis statements There are also two types of thesis statements that can be created regardless of the style of the essay.
One style uses two or more points and is perfect for shorter essays that contain only a few body paragraphs.
The second type lists a single, overarching point. This type of thesis is extremely versatile and is perfect for longer essays that span several pages instead of paragraphs.

Steps to create an effective and informative thesis statement:

Determine the kind of paper you need to write Before you can begin writing your thesis or paper, you must decide which style of essay will be most effective for your specific needs. Here are a few of the options:

Analytical Analytical papers deconstruct an idea or an issue into its separate components, assess the topic and then communicate the assessment and breakdown to the readers.

Expository This type of essay strives to explain something, whether it be an event, issue or process, to its readers.

Persuasive Persuasive essays make a claim about a subject and then spend the rest of the paper arguing the accuracy of this claim by providing supporting evidence. The claim can be an interpretation, a statement that establishes cause-and-effect, an evaluation, an opinion or a policy proposal.

Narrative This type of paper tells a story. Though narratives typically refrain from arguing a point, a thesis statement could still be beneficial to guide the audience.

What to do

Incorporate your main points and specific evidence Your thesis statement will need to introduce the topic that will be discussed throughout your paper as well as the evidence that you will use to support your points. Instead of writing in generalities, use specifics.
Place your thesis in the right spot A thesis is usually found near the middle or end of the first paragraph. This paragraph is referred to as an introductory paragraph and is meant to prepare the reader for the rest of the paper.
Revisit and revise your thesis As you're writing, you may find that your focus needs to shift. Remember that this is okay and that it is natural to discover new things as you're writing. Just be sure to revisit your thesis frequently. You'll need to revise it to give an accurate idea of the points discussed in your paper.

Tips for writing a good thesis statement

Here are some tips that will help guide you as you draft your thesis statement:

When writing a persuasive thesis, make sure that your statement is arguable. In other words, obvious statements will be ineffective.
Choose something that someone will disagree with.
Avoid the oversimplification of complex issues. Though the length will vary depending on the number of points made throughout your essay, a thesis statement is typically only one to two sentences. Meaning it should be clear and concise.
Your thesis should inform the reader why they should care. It is a tool to entice and encourage them to read the rest of the paper. Formulate a draft of your thesis before writing your paper and then use it to guide your research. This will ensure that you stay on topic, resulting in an essay that is focused and effective.

Though a thesis can be a guiding force while writing your paper, it is fluid. If you discover something that will benefit your argument, alter your thesis to incorporate it.

Avoid simply announcing your topic. Instead, make your angle clear. Utilize active verbs and concrete subjects.

FAQs regarding thesis statements:

How do you identify a thesis statement?

There are several methods you can use to identify a thesis statement. The first and most efficient way is to read through the first two paragraphs of the essay to search for one to two sentences that establish a point and provide evidence for that claim.

If you are unable to determine the thesis statement by using this method, you can read through the entire piece and then summarize the main points. By doing this, you have essentially created a thesis statement of your own. Afterward, compare your summary to the first few paragraphs and search for similarities. You will likely be able to identify the thesis statement through this comparison.

What is the main purpose of a thesis statement?

The primary purpose of a thesis statement is to provide an outline for both you and your reader. By detailing what you intend to accomplish with the paper and the reasons that you will provide to substantiate these claims, you are allowing them to prepare for the rest of the piece. Additionally, a thesis can act as a guiding force as you write your essay.

How long should a thesis statement be?

Thesis statements are typically only a sentence or two long and are found near the middle or end of the introductory paragraph.

Do all essays need a thesis?

Though some types of writing don't benefit from incorporating a thesis statement (such as creative writing pieces), most papers and essays require one. This is especially true when writing pieces that are of substantial length because it is easy for both reader and writer to get lost in the details, forgetting the purpose of the piece.

Examples Here are some examples of effective and ineffective thesis statements:

Bad example "In this paper, I will explain the importance of limiting sugar consumption in children."

Good example "On average, American school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar, creating an epidemic of childhood obesity that is completely avoidable. Schools should be encouraging healthier choices by replacing soda machines with accessible and healthier alternatives."

Analyse, Explain, Define. Question words drive your essay response

Words such as ‘explain’, ‘evaluate’ or ‘analyse’ – typical question words used in essay titles – provide a useful indication of how your essay should be structured

No matter their nature, question words are key and must always be adhered to. And yet, many students often overlook them and therefore answer their essay questions incorrectly. You may be a font of all knowledge in your subject area, but if you misinterpret the question words in your essay title, your essay writing could be completely irrelevant and score poorly.

For example, if you are asked to compare the French and British upper houses of parliament, you won’t get many points by simply highlighting the differences between the two parliamentary systems.

So, what should you do? We’ve divided the question words either by ‘critical’ or ‘descriptive’ depending on their nature, which should help you identify the type of response your essay requires.

These are the question words that are commonly asked:

Critical question words

Descriptive question words

Question words that require a critical approach

Some question words require a critical answer and there are varying degrees of how critical your answers must be according to the requirements of the question. We’ve broken these down for you below:

1. Analyse

Essay questions that ask you to ‘analyse’ a particular topic or argument expect a thorough deconstruction of the essay subject. In other words, this word requires you to break the essay topic down into its fundamental parts.

Once you have done this, it’s also important that you critically (more on this word later) examine each part. You need to use important debates and evidence to look in depth at the arguments for and against, as well as how the parts interconnect. What does the evidence suggest? Use it to adopt a stance in your essay, ensuring you don’t simply give a narration on the key debates in the literature. Make your position known and tie this to the literature.

2. Evaluate

When answering this essay question word, the key is to provide your opinion or verdict concerning the extent to which an argument or set of research findings is accurate. You may also be required to demonstrate the extent to which you agree with a particular argument or hypothesis.

It is essential to provide information on both sides of the debate using evidence from a wide range of academic sources. Then you must state your position basing your arguments on the evidence that informed you in arriving at your position.

3. Justify

With ‘justify’ question words, you need to explain the basis of your argument by presenting the evidence that informed your outlook. In such answers, you need to present your evidence in a convincing way, demonstrating good reasons for adopting your position.

Also, you may want to consider arguments that are contrary to your position before stating a conclusion to your arguments. This will help present a balanced argument and demonstrate wide knowledge of the literature. Here, a critical approach becomes crucial. You need to explain why other possible arguments are unsatisfactory as well as why your own particular argument is preferable.

4. Critically evaluate

To ‘critically evaluate’, you must provide your opinion or verdict on whether an argument, or set of research findings, is accurate. This should be done in as critical a manner as possible. Provide your opinion on the extent to which a statement or research finding is true. A critical evaluation of a subject will warrant an assertive essay response that details the extent to which you agree with a set of findings, a theory, or an argument.

The key to tackling these question words is providing ample evidence to support your claims. Ensure that your analysis is balanced by shedding light on, and presenting a critique of, alternative perspectives. It is also important that you present extensive evidence taken from a varying range of sources.

State your conclusion clearly and state the reasons for this conclusion, drawing on factors and evidence that informed your perspective. Also try to justify your position in order to present a convincing argument to the reader.

5. Review

An answer to a ‘review’ question word should demonstrate critical examination of a subject or argument. This is done by recapping or summarising the major themes or points in question, and critically discussing them while giving your opinion.

Put another way, ‘review’ questions entail offering your opinion on the validity of the essay question. For example, you may be asked to review the literature on electoral reform in Great Britain. You'll need to give an overview of the literature. and any major arguments or issues that arose from it. You then need to comment logically and analytically on this material. What do you agree or disagree with? What have other scholars said about the subject? Are there any views that contrast with yours? What evidence are you using to support your assessment? Don’t forget to state your position clearly.

Review answers should not be purely descriptive; they must demonstrate a high level of analytical skill. The aim is not simply to regurgitate the works of other scholars, but rather to critically analyse these works.

6. Assess

In the case of ‘assess’ question words, you are expected to consider or make an informed judgement about the value, strengths or weakness of an argument, claim or topic. ‘Assess’ questions place particular emphasis on weighing all views concerning the essay subject, as opposed to your opinion only.

However, when assessing a particular argument or topic, it is important that your thoughts on its significance are made clear. This must be supported by evidence, and secondary sources in the literature are a great start. Essentially, you need to convince the reader about the strength of your argument, using research to back up your assessment of the topic is essential. Highlight any limitations to your argument and remember to mention any counterarguments to your position.

7. Discuss

‘Discuss’ question words typically require an in-depth answer that takes into account all aspects of the debate concerning a research topic or argument. You must demonstrate reasoning skills with this type of question, by using evidence to make a case for or against a research topic/argument.

Give a detailed examination of the topic by including knowledge of the various perspectives put forward by other scholars in relation to it. What are your thoughts on the subject based on the general debates in the literature? Remember to clearly state your position based on all the evidence you present.

8. Examine

A close examination of a research topic or argument requires that you establish the key facts and important issues concerning the topic or argument by looking at them in close detail. This means that you must adopt a very critical approach with 'examine' question words.

You should also try to provide some context on why the issues and facts that you have closely examined are important. Have these issues and facts been examined differently by other scholars? If so, make a note of this. How did they differ in their approach and what are the factors that account for these alternative approaches?

‘Examine’ questions are less exploratory and discursive than some other types of question. They focus instead on asking you to critically examine particular pieces of evidence or facts to inform your analysis.

9. To what extent

In essence, this asks how far you agree with a proposition put forward in the question. This requires a very in-depth assessment of the topic, and especially of the evidence used to present your argument.

Such questions require that you display the extent of your knowledge on a given subject and that you also adopt an analytical style in stating your position. This means that you must consider both sides of the argument, by present contrasting pieces of evidence. But ultimately, you must show why a particular set of evidence, or piece of information, is more valid for supporting your answer.

Question words that require a descriptive response

In some instances, question words require mostly a descriptive response as is the case with the words below:

1. Define

Here, you must outline the precise meaning of the subject of the question. If the definition you provide is a contested one then make sure you mention this. How do other scholars define the subject? Why is its meaning contested and why have you chosen to use one meaning instead of the other if this is the case?

It is important that you provide more than one meaning if there are several of them as it shows that you are very familiar with the literature.

2. Demonstrate

The key to tackling ‘demonstrate’ questions is to use several examples, evidence, and logical arguments. Essentially, you are required to show how a particular research topic or argument is valid by using evidence and arguments to support your claim.

Make sure you assert your position with these types of questions. It's even more important that you support your arguments with valid evidence in order to establish a strong case.

3. Describe

When describing something, you must provide thorough insight into the main characteristics of a research subject in an objective manner. As answers to such questions will be inherently descriptive, it is important that you recount or characterise in narrative form.

‘Describe’ question words focus less on the basic meaning of something, therefore, and more on its particular characteristics. These characteristics should form the building blocks of your answer.

4. Elaborate

Here, you are required to provide a lot of detail and information on a research topic or argument. ‘Elaborate’ questions tend to elicit descriptive responses. Therefore. it's important to demonstrate that you have done significant research on the topic to support the information you provide.

5. Explain

‘Explain’ questions expect you to basically clarify a topic. When answering such questions, it helps to imagine you are writing for someone who knows absolutely nothing of the subject. And remember two things. To provide as much detail as possible, and to give definitions for any jargon or key terms when used.

In addition, always remember to back any claims with academic research. In explanatory answers it is important that you demonstrate a clear understanding of a research topic or argument. This comes across most convincingly if you present a clear interpretation of the subject or argument to the reader. Keep in mind any ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions as this will help you to structure a clear and logically coherent response. Coherence is extremely important in providing explanatory answers.

6. Explore

Needless to say, your answer must be exploratory and thus it is imperative that you adopt a questioning approach when answering such questions. Because of the exploratory nature of such essays, objectivity is key. That is, you should give an overview of all viewpoints before providing any of your own arguments.

A somewhat detached, dispassionate tone can be particularly effective, in contrast to the more assertive, argumentative tone you might adopt for other types of essay question. Just remember that the key objective here is to give a nuanced account of a research topic or argument by examining its composite parts.

7. Identify

Essay questions that require you to ‘identify’ something in relation to a research topic or argument require you to simply point out and describe the main ideas in a short and coherent way. A little like this paragraph.

8. Illustrate

Such an answer will generally involve the use of many examples, such as tables, figures, graphs, or concrete research statistics and evidence. The aim is to use these examples to demonstrate knowledge of the subject of the question and to further explain or clarify your answer.

9. Outline

outline answer requires you present an organised description of a research topic or argument. It is imperative that you provide the main points only (and any important supplementary information) as opposed to focusing on the minor details. Remember to present your answer in a systematic and coherent way.

10. Summarise

When you are asked to summarise or present a summary of a research topic, you should give a condensed form of its main points or facts. You must omit all minor details and focus mainly on the key facts. As a result, summaries are typically brief and straight to the point. The key is to get all the main facts across to the reader in as punchy and succinct a manner as possible.

11. Clarify

This means to provide insight into a subject, and quite literally, provide clarification. For example, this could be done by making an argument or topic more clear by explaining it in simpler terms.

Such questions require you to shed light on a topic or, in some instances, break down a complex subject into simple parts. Coherence is very important for acing such questions, remembering to present your answer in a systematic manner.

12. Compare

When asked to ‘compare’, you must identify any similarities between two or more subjects of discussion. You can go beyond making a basic comparison by trying to understand the roots of the similarities you identify, as well as their significance.

Furthermore, you may also want to emphasise any differences, although the focus of your essay should be on establishing similarities.

13. Contrast

A ‘contrast’ question expects you to identify differences, not similarities, between subjects. What are the main dissimilarities between two or more subjects? What sets them apart? These are the general questions that you must keep in mind when addressing ‘contrast’ questions.

Courtesy of Oxbridge Essays : https://www.oxbridgeessays.com/blog/analyse-explain-evaluate-answer-essay-question-words/

Varying sentence types and structures

Written by Eloise McInerney: https://www.elevenwriting.com/blog/varying-sentence-structures

When you have a lot of ideas to put down, it can be tempting to just arrange them the easiest way possible. Most writers have a specific sentence structure or two that they lean on heavily while drafting. But if these make it to the final draft, the piece sounds laboured and repetitive.

That won’t ensnare an audience, and with attention spans waning, writers need all the tools they can get to keep eyes on the page.

The good news is, repetitive prose isn’t hard to fix. Here’s a few quick tips for switching up your sentence structure to catch your audience’s attention—and hold it fast.

Why varied sentence structures will improve your writing

Boring sentence structure kills prose. While readers may not notice when sentence structure flows naturally, they will certainly notice when it doesn’t—even if they can’t put their finger on the issue. The piece will just feel awkward and uncompelling, and readers may question the writer’s expertise, as repetitive sentence structure is a no-go in professional publications.

Sentence structure affects tone. Prose with a good flow—the rhythm and movement from word to word and sentence to sentence—sounds natural and enables readers to focus on the content. Therefore, creating a natural flow is a vital skill for a professional.

Flow can also give readers hints. A short sentence amidst several longer ones gives readers a break from absorbing complicated info, making a definitive point. Longer sentences, on the other hand, can slow the pace down for leisurely, detailed description, or create a strong rhythm that pulls readers in.

What boring sentence structures looks like

Overuse of Long Sentences

Imagine a page filled entirely with sentences like this:

The Mega Plan is designed to accommodate multiple sites, templates, and plug-ins—from e-commerce to security and member login widgets—and has an in-depth knowledge base, with hundreds of how-to articles from experts, as well as a dedicated 24/7 phone support line.

Without a break between many long sentences, some details are sure to be overlooked as the reader tries to parse it all.

Overuse of short sentences

The overuse of short sentences makes the prose sound stilted and unengaging, and it can be hard to tell what information is most important.

Blue #5 is an artificial food colouring. It was invented in the 20th century. It originated in Texas.

Overuse of the same sentence structure

In the example above, you’ll also notice another common pattern—starting every sentence with a simple subject + verb construction.

But any sentence structure can become a crutch if repeated too often:

I leaped into the car, panicking, as screams sounded behind me. I turned my head, incredulous, when I heard a crash. I saw a rotted hand, oozing blood, reaching into the window.‍

How to vary your sentence structure

If you’ve noticed that your writing falls into some patterns, don’t worry—awareness is the first step toward improving!

Rather than labouring excessively over your first drafts, in the editing stage, search each paragraph to spot repetitive structure. Then, follow these tips to switch things up.

Learn the four types of sentences

Before you start analysing your writing for patterns, ensure you know the four types of sentences so you can recognize when you’re over-relying on one and then shift to another.

A simple sentence includes one independent clause. Blue #5 originated in Texas.
A complex sentence involves an independent clause and a dependent clause. I leaped into the car, panicking.
A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses joined by a conjunction. I slammed my purse into it, and the rotting hand retreated for a moment.
A compound-complex sentence includes one or more dependent clauses on top of two+ independent clauses. The Mega Plan, which is designed to accommodate multiple users, can support e-commerce, and it comes at an affordable price.

Change the subject‍

In the example above, note that all of the fiction sentences start with the same subject—I. What if the writer had started each sentence with a different subject?

I leaped into the car, panicking, as screams sounded behind me. A crash exploded in my ears, and I whipped my head back to see a rotted hand reaching in through the window. Blood oozed from its fingertips.

Rearrange

The example above is stronger, but every sentence still starts with subject + verb. If this is your issue, try switching it up by starting with a dependent clause or otherwise rearranging.

Panicking, screams sounding behind me, I leaped for the car. A crash exploded in my ears…‍

Vary paragraph rhythm by alternating sentence lengths

Consider each paragraph as a whole unit and aim for an abundance of sentence variety within. Split up lengthy sentences to give readers a breather. In general, it’s good to start with a few average-length sentences and throw in a longer or shorter one every so often, but feel free to experiment until you create a comfortable rhythm.

Have a point you want to emphasize? Make it stand out with a sentence of contrasting length to those around it. And if you have many shorter sentences, simply combine a few of them.

Conclusion

Sentence structure can easily be overlooked when reading or drafting, but it can make a big difference in reader comprehension and the overall tone of a piece. However, once you start to pay attention to sentence structure, creating strong paragraph flow will become second nature to you, and you’ll be well on your way to more natural writing that keeps readers turning those pages.

Active Voice

Use the active voice

Generally, try to use the active voice whenever possible. Passive voice sentences often use more words, can be vague, and can lead to a tangle of prepositional phrases.

Active vs passive voice

In a sentence written in the active voice, the subject of sentence performs the action. In a sentence written in the passive voice the subject receives the action.

Active: The minister believes that Parliament must place a ceiling on the budget. Passive: It is believed by the minister that a ceiling must be placed on the budget by Parliament.
Active: Researchers earlier showed that high stress can cause heart attacks. Passive: It was earlier demonstrated that heart attacks can be caused by high stress.
Active: The bat hit the ball. Passive: The ball was hit by the bat.

Converting sentences to active voice

Here are some tips and strategies for converting sentences from the passive to the active voice.

Look for a “by” phrase (e.g., “by the bat” in the last example above). If you find one, the sentence may be in the passive voice. Rewrite the sentence so that the subject buried in the “by” clause is closer to the beginning of the sentence.
If the subject of the sentence is somewhat anonymous, see if you can use a general term, such as “researchers,” or “the study,” or “experts in this field.”

When to use passive voice

There are sometimes good reasons to use the passive voice.

To emphasise the action rather than the actor

After long debate, the proposal was endorsed by the long-range planning committee.

To keep the subject and focus consistent throughout a passage

The data processing department recently presented what proved to be a controversial proposal to expand its staff. After long debate, the proposal was endorsed by . . . .

To be tactful by not naming the actor

The procedures were somehow misinterpreted.

To describe a condition in which the actor is unknown or unimportant

Every year, thousands of people are diagnosed as having cancer.

To create an authoritative tone

Visitors are not allowed after 9:00 p.m.

Powerful Adjectives and Adverbs

An adjective is a word that names an attribute of a noun. Some are strong and paint clear, specific pictures of the thing they are describing. Some are weak and vague and don’t tell us much.

We use strong adjectives to be more expressive than normal adjectives. Strong adjectives can replace really or very with normal adjectives.

Here's an example:

Sam is cold.

“Cold” is a weak adjective that doesn’t paint a vivid mental picture in your reader’s mind.

In my mind, I imagine Sam's lips are blue and his teeth are chattering. He feels like an icicle has replaced all of the blood in his veins.

In your mind, however, maybe you think Sam had better just throw a jacket around his shoulders and he’ll be fine.

There is a lot of ambiguity with “cold” and your reader is left to guess what you mean. This ambiguity is why an author might be tempted to add a “very”–to give it that extra punch.

Sam is very cold.

But instead of adding a very, you should really be replacing your weak adjective with a stronger one.

Sam is freezing.

Below are some more examples to get a feel for the difference:

Weak: Happy + very = I’m very happy. Strong: I’m ecstatic

Weak: Hot + very = It’s very hot out today. Strong: It’s sweltering out today.

Weak: Sleepy + very = She looks very sleepy Strong: She looks exhausted.

Weak: Glad + very = He’ll be very glad to see you. Strong: He’ll be delighted to see you.

Weak: Funny + very = You’re very funny. Strong: You’re hilarious.

Weak: Dirty + very = That dog is very dirty. Strong: That dog is filthy.

Weak: Big + very = The elephant in the room is very big. Strong: The elephant in the room is enormous.

Tips for Using Strong Adverbs

Take care to avoid overusing adverbs in your writing. When you use adverbs too much, readers may become annoyed and bored rather than enthralled or excited. Apply the tips below to make sure that you are using adverbs just enough.

Use adverbs when they are most needed.
If the adverb isn't helping, remove it.
If the adverb is weak, replace it with a strong adverb.
If the verb or adjective works great without the adverb, remove it.
The adverbs "really" and "very" are overused a lot. Make sure they are truly necessary before adding them.

Powerful Adverbs: It's a Balancing Act

When it comes to adverbs, it's all about balance. Best Selling American author Stephen King is known for cautioning aspiring writers to use adverbs sparingly. He once compared using adverbs to having dandelions in your yard. One on your lawn looks pretty and unique, but the weeds can easily overtake the lawn if they're not rooted out. To reinforce what you've learned, take a look at some examples of adverbs in sentences. Now that you've got a handle on adverbs to improve your writing, shift your focus to action verbs.

What Is an Adverb?

An adverb is a word used to modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. Adverbs are like the seasoning in sentences. They help describe how things appear and how things happen. They help a reader visualize an action with an appropriate level of intensity.

Adverbs help control what others see when you speak or write. They are one of the necessary components of good writing. When used correctly, they can add a whole new dimension to your work. Check out how using a strong vs. weak adverb can improve your writing.

What Makes a Strong Adverb?

Written words should paint a picture in the reader's mind, and adverbs help make that happen. Adverbs add oomph to punches and power to kicks. Having a list of adverbs to call on can help add a degree of energy or spice to your verbiage.

However, not all adverbs are strong. Some adverbs like "really" or "very" aren't adding to your imagery and could be removed or substituted. You can see this in action by comparing "really" vs. "unbelievably" in a sentence.

She moved really slowly.
She moved unbelievably slowly.

While "really" isn't telling the reader much about how slow "she" is, using "unbelievably" gives you a vivid understanding. Her movement was so slow as to be unbelievable, which is very different from just being a bit slower than expected. As you can see, choosing adverbs is important.

Strong Adverbs Modifying Verbs

Now, it's time to look at a list of adverbs for writing to make it stronger. It's easy to say that "The quick brown fox jumped over a lazy brown dog," but how did he do it? That's the thing everyone is dying to know. A strong verb can often stand on its own, but adverbs can strengthen and colour verbs to add vividness and clarity to any sentence. When adverbs modify verbs, they describe the way something is happening. In the examples below, the adverb is in bold and the verb is underlined.

Powerful Adverbs Modifying Adjectives

How tired were you? How ugly was it? Readers and audiences beg for the answers to such questions. Adverbs give them those answers, adding more information to an adjective, while lending intensity to writing and speech. In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the adjective is underlined.

Strong Adverbs Modifying Other Adverbs

Sometimes, even adverbs need help. When you want to bring attention to a level of rapidity or to a degree of languidness, you may need an adverb to describe another adverb. When you want to describe one adverb with another, just put them next to one another. In the examples below, the modifying adverb is in bold and the main adverb is underlined.

https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/adverbs/list-of-adverbs.html

Repetitive Sentence Beginnings

To avoid repetitive sentence beginnings, keep an eye out for multiple sentences in a row beginning with the same word. Most often, repetitive sentence beginnings start with:

a pronoun (he, she, I, they, it, her, his)
a character name
an article (a, the)
a conjunction (but, and)
a conjunctive adverb (then).

That kind of repetitive sentence structure leads to a monotonous rhythm, causing readers’ attention to wander. It’s important to vary the structure of your sentences. Try mixing it up — start some sentences with words other than names or pronouns.

There are no hard-and-fast rules about how many repetitions are too many, but generally, two times in a row is fine; three times might be too much.

The same is true for paragraph beginnings. Keep an eye on how many paragraphs in a row start with the same word, and if more than two start with the same one, switch it up.

Paragraph Strategies

Great advice written by : https://getproofed.com/writing-tips/paragraph-length-5-essential-tips/

Paragraph length is important. Too many long paragraphs in a document may make it difficult to read. Too many short paragraphs and it could seem disjointed. But how long should a good paragraph be?

1. Paragraph Length Depends on Document Type

If you look online, you’ll find advice saying that paragraphs should be between 100 and 200 words long. And as a guideline on paragraph length, this is fine for most documents.

However, paragraph length also depends on the type of writing. Some paragraphs may be a single sentence. Some may spread across more than one page. In this blog post, for example, most of the paragraphs are under 100 words because shorter paragraphs are easy to read on screen. But the paragraphs in an academic textbook would be longer to offer more depth.

As such, you should tailor your paragraphs to suit the document and the subject matter. But to do this, you need to consider why we use paragraphs in the first place…

2. The Purpose of a Paragraph

Paragraphs help us organize the information in a document. Consequently, each paragraph should cover one main idea. Try thinking about a paragraph like a tiny essay:

Start with a topic sentence to set out what the paragraph is about
Use the main body of the paragraph to expand upon this idea
End with a concluding sentence that leads on to the next paragraph

If you find yourself covering multiple ideas in a single paragraph, especially if there’s no direct connection between them, consider separating them into distinct passages instead.

3. Consistency vs. Mixing It Up

Most of the paragraphs in a document should be a roughly similar length. If you find that they vary a lot, it may be sign that some ideas in your document are underdeveloped and need expanding.

However, in longer documents it is a good idea to mix things up a bit, especially if you have a lot of long paragraphs. One way to do this is to bookend each section with short introductory and concluding paragraphs, setting out and then summarizing what you’ve discussed.

4. Editing Long Paragraphs

While editing your work, you may want to break longer paragraphs down into shorter ones. Look for a point where the focus changes, even if only slightly (e.g., shifting from introducing an idea to giving an in-depth example). You can then add a line break and, if necessary, a linking sentence.

5. Editing Short Paragraphs

If your document contains too many short paragraphs, particularly in succession, you can look for passages that cover similar topics and combine them into a single longer paragraph.

This may simply involve deleting a line break, but you might also have to consider the overall structure of your document. If you have several short paragraphs touching on the same topic in different places, think about whether they should all be part of one section instead.

Simple Sentences

Although short sentences can pack a powerful punch in your writing, too many in a row become distracting to the reader. Written by : https://magoosh.com/pro-writing/avoid-improve-choppy-sentences/

Choppy sentences may make your ideas seem disconnected, and your writing seem unsophisticated. If you find that you have a lot of short, choppy sentences in your writing, here are five ways to improve them.

Conjunctions

Try combining sentences using a . Some conjunctions you could use are:

When combining two complete sentences, make sure that you use a comma, too. For example:

Before: We need to contact the doctor’s office. We should try to get an appointment right away.

After: We need to contact the doctor’s office, and we should try to get an appointment right away.

Subordination

Subordination involves combining a main idea with an incomplete clause using a connector. This helps show how the two sentences work together. The connector is typically a word like after, although, because, even though, if, since, though, unless, whereas, and which. For example:

Before: Don’t forget to wash your hands before handling food. You don’t want to contaminate it.

After: Since you don’t want to contaminate the food, don’t forget to wash your hands before handling it.

Appositives

Appositives are phrases that add extra information about a noun in the sentence. Rather than use a separate sentence to provide information about that noun, you can include it right after mentioning it:

Before: Buzz Aldrin was an astronaut. He was the second person to walk on the moon.

After: Buzz Aldrin, an astronaut, was the second person to walk on the moon. When using appositives in a sentence, don’t forget to set the phrase apart with commas.

Modifying Phrases

Before: The politician spoke to the high school students. She urged them to get informed and get involved with their local government.

After: The politician spoke to the high school students, urging them to get informed and get involved with their local government.

Reworked Ideas

You can also combine multiple sentences by reworking the ideas. Think about ways to combine several sentences into one long sentence. For example:

Before: The boy got side tracked on his way to school. He was six years old. He ended up at a park this morning.

After: The six-year-old boy ended up at the park rather than going to school this morning.

You can manipulate the sentence and move phrases around to find the best way to convey your ideas to the reader.

Joining Simple Sentences

https://medium.com/the-brave-writer/10-ways-to-combine-2-simple-sentences-455d8482f9ce

10 ways to put together two simple sentences

Let’s look at 10 ways to put together two simple sentences, the basic building blocks of everything we write. A simple sentence, just for clarity, has at least one subject, one verb, and often very little else. The bird flew. I cried. It’s happy as a clam all by its independent little self.

A simple sentence isn’t necessarily short but it often is. Simple sentences don't give away much in terms of context or relationship but do keep the action moving forward. Too many though, and you start to sound a little simple yourself.

So here are our two simple sentences:

I rode my bike down the road. I was hit by a car.

What different ways can we put them together? What happens when we do?

Let’s start with the basics and work our way out.

1. Subordinate one sentence

While riding my bike down the road, I was hit by a car.

Adding the “while” at the start lets the reader know that there will be a change of state. One thing was ongoing, and another collided with it (literally). It creates a small amount of anticipation that is quickly resolved.

I was riding my bike down the road when I was hit by a car.

Here, the second sentence is subordinated instead of the first. This puts the main character out front. It generally makes for more action-oriented writing than having the subordinated sentence first. Read the two sentences side-by-side to feel the difference.

2. Compound them

I rode my bike down the road and then I was hit by a car.

Compounding the sentence loses some of the energy of two simple sentences, but it can help emphasize the temporal (or other simple) relationship between the two events. This may be important depending on the context.

3. Punctuate them

I rode my bike down the road; I was hit by a car.

The semicolon creates a closer relationship between the two sentences but leaves the relationship ambiguous. It’s a small pause and can be used to build connection and suspense but can be alienating to a less sophisticated reader.

I rode my bike down the road and then — I was hit by a car.

The ever-so-amazing dash adds emphasis and pause in a way that no other punctuation can. But it creates a dramatic look on the page and should be used judiciously or writing can start to feel too choppy or broken up.

I rode my bike down the road and then . . . I was hit by a car.

The ellipses creates suspense, like a slow motion scene in a movie. Also to be used sparingly.

Notice too, how I’ve combined punctuation with compounding, but you could use subordination instead:

I was riding my bike down the road — when suddenly I was hit by a car.

4. Add causality

Because I was riding my bike down the road, I was hit by a car.
If I hadn’t been riding my bike down the road, I wouldn’t have been hit by the car.

Notice how both sentences add causality (because this, that) but the second is more formal. It also suggests an element of guilt or blame. It might even hint at the possibility of an alternative: something else could have happened, but didn’t.

You can even reverse the sentences:

I was hit by a car because I was riding my bike down the road.

The most important information in a sentence — what the reader will take away — is generally at the beginning and at the end. When we reorder the sentences this way, notice how the car all but disappears into the context. If you want to say more about that car, leave it at the end, or it might become confusing for your reader.

5. Change the emphasis

The car hit me as I rode my bike down the road.

Let’s say we want the car to become even more important, so we put it at the front. Notice I’ve changed two things here to make this happen. I reversed the sentences, then I changed the second sentence from the passive voice to put the actual actor (the car) out in front. When we first started out, the story was mostly about the main character, the “I”.

Generally speaking, a sentence starts with the “known” information and ends with “new”. Out of context, a reader sees this first example and expects something in a previous sentence about the car. You can add a twist of surprise by putting a new piece of information at the start, but use this tactic too often and you break the “known-new” contract with your reader.

Or, we can emphasize other things:

It was my favourite bike that I rode when the car hit me.
Before the day a car hit me, I’d never biked down that particular road.

In the second example, it’s the bike. In the third, the emphasis becomes the road. It’s now the road — scene of the accident — that the reader might expect to hear more about.

6. Fruit basket upset

Down the road, a car. It hit me and my bike.
I saw the car down the road moments before it hit me. I was on my bike.

Just because you put the elements together one way to start, doesn’t mean you can’t shake it up. Or stir it. Whichever you prefer.

7. Up the uncertainty and suspense

Little did I know as I rode my bicycle down the road that all too soon a car would hit me.
I never expected it would be the last time I ever rode my bike down that road, but then the car hit me. And it changed everything.

Obviously the grammar begins to get more complex at this point so we won’t worry about that part too much. Notice, though, that the first example is essentially just the first sentence subordinated with more of a flourish. The second example, a compound sentence. There aren’t actually any more “details” here, yet the same event carries a lot more import. It shows the reader: this simple event has big meaning.

8. Add even more meaning

Riding my bike was my favourite thing; that is, until one day I was hit by a car.
I rode my bike down the road without a care in the world; and then I was hit by a car.
I rode my bike down the road. Just before it hit me, the car revved its engine.

In these examples it isn’t so much about changing their grammatical structure, but how adding a layer of significant relationship combines them, relates them in a deeper way.

9. Get paratactic

My bike. A road. The car — I never saw it coming.

Parataxis offers more punchy style, though it isn’t always quite so brief. The words collide, mimicking the experience of shock and disruption.

10. Put it all together

I rode my bike down that same stretch of road to work every damn day; yet I never predicted a car would hit me that bright summer morning.
The car hit my bike and sent me sprawling down the road.
From way down the road, I saw the car. I peddled as fast I could . . . seconds later it hit me and sent my bike flying.

Grammar - Punctuation

Punctuation

Capital Letters

It is important to know which words to capitalise in your writing. Here's a list of the types of words that we need to capitalise in English.

1. Use a capital letter for the personal pronoun 'I':

What can I say?

2. Use a capital letter to begin a sentence or to begin speech:

The man arrived. He sat down.
Suddenly Mary asked, "What's for dinner?"

3. Use capital letters for many abbreviations and acronyms:

G.M.T. or GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
N.A.T.O. or NATO or Nato (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

4. Use a capital letter for days of the week, months of the year, holidays:

Thursday, Friday
March, April
Easter
Anzac Day

5. Use a capital letter for countries, languages & nationalities, religions:

Thailand, Canada
Cantonese, English
Christianity, Islam

6. Use a capital letter for people's names and titles:

William, Theo, Robert Redford
Professor Mason, Dr Jones
Captain Kirk, Queen Elizabeth II

7. Use a capital letter for trade-marks and names of companies and other organisations:

Coca-Cola, Walmart
Google, Hyundai
the United Nations, the Red Cross

8. Use a capital letter for places and monuments:

Sydney, Bangkok, Circular Quay
the Statue of Liberty, Westminster Abbey
Buckingham Palace, the White House
Oxford Street, Madison Square
Uranus, Mars, Sirius
South America, the Middle East, the South Pole

9. Use a capital letter for names of vehicles like ships, trains and spacecraft:

the Titanic
the Orient Express, the Ghan
Challenger 2, the Enterprise

10. Use a capital letter for titles of books, poems, songs, plays, films etc:

War And Peace
Moon River
Hamilton
Frozen, Gone With The Wind

11. Use capital letters (sometimes!) for headings, titles of articles, books etc, and newspaper headlines:

HOW TO MAKE A MILLION
Chapter 2: THE DEMISE OF CLINTON
LIFE FOUND ON MARS!
MAN BITES DOG

Possessive Apostrophes

What is a Possessive Apostrophe?

Possessive apostrophes indicate ownership. Typically, this will involve adding an apostrophe plus the letter ‘s’ after a noun or someone’s name:

Mandy's hair was tangled.

The table’s leg is wobbly.

Here, for example, the apostrophes show us that the hair belongs to Mandy and that the leg belongs to the table.

Possessive Apostrophes After ‘S’

The main variation on the rule above comes when a word already ends in the letter ‘s’. In this case, you can either:

Add an apostrophe plus another ‘s’ (e.g. Denis’s tennis racquet)
Or just use the apostrophe by itself (e.g. Denis’ tennis racquet)

Both of these are accepted in modern English. However, if you’re writing an essay or for a specific publication, you may want to check your style guide for advice on which approach to use.

Plurals and Possessive Apostrophes

Plurals that end in ‘s’ sometimes cause confusion when using a possessive apostrophe. The key here is that possessive apostrophes should always go after the final ‘s’ in a plural. For instance, imagine if we wanted to talk about two dogs with empty food bowls:

The dogs’ bowls are empty. ✓

The dog’s bowls are empty. ✗

The first sentence here suggests multiple dogs and multiple bowls. But the second implies one dog with more than one bowl. And while this not ungrammatical, it is still an error as it does not say what it is meant to say.

Hyphens

When do you need to use a hyphen for compound words?

General Principle 1

If a compound adjective can be misread, use a hyphen.

General Principle 2

In a temporary compound that is used as an adjective before a noun, use a hyphen if the term can be misread or if the term expresses a single thought (i.e., all words together modify the noun).

For example:

"the adolescents resided in two parent homes" means that two homes served as residences, whereas if the adolescents resided in "two-parent homes," they each would live in a household headed by two parents.

A properly placed hyphen helps the reader understand the intended meaning.

Also use hyphens for

Compounds in which the base word is

capitalized: pro-Freudian
a number: post-1970
an abbreviation: pre-UCS trial
more than one word: non-achievement-oriented students

All "self-" compounds whether they are adjectives or nouns

self-report
self-esteem
the test was self-paced

Words that could be misunderstood

re-pair [pair again]
re-form [form again]
un-ionized

Words in which the prefix ends and the base word begins with the same vowel

meta-analysis
anti-intellectual
co-occur

General Principle 3

Most compound adjective rules are applicable only when the compound adjective precedes the term it modifies. If a compound adjective follows the term, do not use a hyphen, because relationships are sufficiently clear without one.

client-centred counselling but the counselling was client centred
t-test results but results from t tests
same-sex children but children of the same sex

General Principle 4

Write most words formed with prefixes and suffixes as one word.

Prefixes

aftereffect
extracurricular
multiphase
socioeconomic

Suffixes

agoraphobia
wavelike
cardiogram

General Principle 5

When two or more compound modifiers have a common base, this base is sometimes omitted in all except the last modifier, but the hyphens are retained.

Long- and short-term memory
2-, 3-, and 10-min trials

Spaces

Spaces in your writing need to be uniform. One space should be used between words. Using 2 or more spaces between words impacts the flow of reading the sentence. For example:

This sentence uses variable spacing which impacts on the way we read it.

Also, only one space should follow periods, commas, semicolons, colons, exclamation points, question marks, and quotation marks.

Commas

A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Used properly, commas make the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and clauses. It is recommended that the comma be used cautiously and wisely. It is used to connect new ideas to old ones, and to tell the reader when to pause a moment in their thinking (or in their speaking, if they’re reading out loud). In long sentences, it’s also used to separate clauses, so the reader understands which modifiers apply to which words, etc.

Use commas to separate items (words, phrases or numbers) in a series.

I need to buy flour, eggs and butter for my cakes while shopping today.

Use a comma to set off introductory words, mild interjections or names at the beginning of a sentence.

Well, that was an interesting movie!
“Tom, would you please put the butter in the fridge?”
Yes, there are fourteen days in a fortnight.
Mr President, do you plan to change the carbon voting?

Use a comma before and after interruptions in a sentence.

The Easter Show, I think, is the best of all the craft exhibitions.
Mary, the teacher, worked at least ten hours a day.
Will you, Angela, be able to finish on time?
Her grandmother, Joan Elizabeth, was 102 years old.
Mahatma Ghandi, the greatest exponent for peace, was a classic pacifist.

Use an ‘Oxford comma’ (or serial comma) to clarify list items.

The pansies are black and white, red and yellow, and purple and black. (More than one in each category)
My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon, and ham and cheese. (Ham and cheese is a single unit.)

Use commas to separate the following connectives from the rest of the sentence.

In fact, Generally, Actually, Most importantly,
Also, Furthermore, In addition, Additionally,
Firstly, Secondly Thirdly, Finally etc.
Meanwhile, During, While,
Consequently, As a result, Anyway,
First of all, I just want to say, After all,
However, Although, On the other hand, In other words.

Grammar

Comma Splices

What is a Comma Splice?

A comma splice is a grammatical error and a misuse of the comma. It occurs when two main (or independent) clauses are incorrectly combined using only a comma.

Two independent clauses cannot be joined without a proper conjunction or without proper punctuation.

Comma Splice Examples

We went to the store, we bought apples.
- This example has two independent clauses, one on each side of the comma. This sentence needs a comma with a conjunction or a semicolon to be grammatically correct.
The cat needs food, he is hungry.
- Again, this example has two independent clauses. In order to be grammatically correct, this sentence needs to be split into two or a conjunction needs to be added.

A comma splice also creates a run-on sentence.

How to Fix a Comma Splice

Comma splices are not good grammar. Therefore, they should be corrected in any type of writing, be it formal, informal, essays, etc.

Let’s use the above example to show how to fix comma splices.

There are three ways to fix a comma splice.

Create two independent clauses.
1. Incorrect: We went to the store, we bought apples.
2. Correct: We went to the store. We bought apples.
Change the comma to a semicolon.
1. Incorrect: We went to the store, we bought apples.
2. Correct: We went to the store; we bought apples.
Leave the comma and add a conjunction.
1. Incorrect: We went to the store, we bought apples.
2. Correct: We went to the store, and we bought apples.
  This kind of conjunction is known as a coordination conjunction.

Note: Only use a semicolon if the sentences are of equal length and of equal importance.

Excluding 'that'

When can you exclude 'that' from a sentence?

There are a number of instances in English where it is possible and even desirable to omit the word that.

that as conjunction with reporting verbs (like learn, discover, find out, know, feel, etc.): I discovered (that) Jose had borrowed my scooter without my permission.
after the more common reporting verbs, (e.g. say, tell) it is also entirely natural to omit that in informal speech: I told her (that) I'd be back by ten o'clock but she said she needed me here earlier.
after certain verbs (e.g. reply, shout) that cannot be omitted and it is not normally dropped after nouns: The CEO informed the staff that the company was going to close. Often, that can be removed from a sentence without affecting the overall meaning, especially when it has been used with a conditional, e.g. She told me that I could go to the party vs. She told me I could go to the party.

Sometimes, however, you can change or lose the meaning by removing that. For example, I heard that you snore = Person A snores, and Person B has told Person C about it, whereas I heard you snore = Person A snores and Person B has heard them doing it.

Consider whether your use of 'that' is necessary for understanding time, object or person. If not, you can probably cut it.

Missing Determiners

Determiners are small words that go in front of nouns (also known as “noun modifiers”). The main purpose of determiners is to “mark” a noun, or to “determine” its context. Determiners identify which person or thing a sentence is describing. Sometimes, determiners “determine” if the noun/pronoun is definite or indefinite. Determiners can also describe to whom the noun belongs, or how many of the noun there are.

The Grammar of Determiners

In English, determiners as a class include the following categories:

Articles (a, an, the) - This is the most common type of determiner.
The is the definite article used when describing a specific noun which is one of its kind.
A and an are the indefinite articles, used when describing nonspecific nouns.
Demonstratives (this, that, these, those, which, etc.)
Possessive Determiners a.k.a. Possessive Pronouns (my, your, his, her, their, etc.)
Quantifiers (few, some, many, all, any, every, each, no, not much, a little, etc.)
Cardinal Numbers (one, two, sixty-six, ninety-nine)
Numbers beginning with 100 require a determiner (i.e. a hundred ways).

In most Indo-European languages (e.g. English), determiners are separate words that precede nouns. However, in some languages, determiners come in the form of prefixes or suffixes added onto nouns, as is the case in Scandinavian languages.

For this reason, it is common for non-native English speakers to omit determiners.

Fixing Missing Determiners

Missing Determiner #1:

I bought banana at the market.

This phrase requires either an article (‘a/the’) before the noun, eg.

I bought a banana at the market.

Missing Determiner #2:

The manager talked about how to solve financial crisis.

This phrase requires either an article (‘a/the’), or changing the noun to the plural form. The manager talked about how to solve a financial crisis. or The manager talked about how to solve the financial crisis. or The manager talked about how to solve financial crises.

Split Infinitives

Split Infinitives happen when you put an adverb between to and a verb, for example:

She used to secretly admire him.

You have to really watch him.

What’s wrong with split infinitives?

Some people believe that split infinitives are grammatically incorrect and should be avoided at all costs. They would rewrite these sentences as:

She used secretly to admire him.

You really have to watch him.

But there’s no real justification for their objection, which is based on comparisons with the structure of Latin. People have been splitting infinitives for centuries, especially in spoken English, and avoiding a split infinitive can sound clumsy. It can also change the emphasis of what’s being said. The sentence:

You really have to watch him. (ie. ‘It’s important that you watch him’)

doesn’t have quite the same meaning as:

You have to really watch him. (ie. ‘You have to watch him very closely’)

To split or not to split?

The ‘rule’ against splitting infinitives isn’t followed as strictly today as it used to be. Nevertheless, some people do object very strongly to them. As a result, it’s safest to avoid split infinitives in formal writing, unless the alternative wording seems very clumsy or would alter the meaning of your sentence.

Comma After Subordinate Clause

Do I need a comma after a subordinate clause?

The short answer is "yes" ... if the subordinate clause comes at the beginning of the sentence.

A subordinate clause adds context to a sentence. It is not a proper sentence on its own.

A subordinate clause starts with a subordinate conjunction. Common subordinate conjunctions are: after, although, as, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order that, once, provided that, rather than, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether, while, and why. In the following sentences, we have put the subordinate clauses in bold.

Lisa chose to visit the High Court since she's a law major.
Since Lisa is a law major, she chose to visit the High Court.
If you go to the conservatorium, you will learn something about music.
You will learn something about music if you go to the conservatorium.

From these examples, you can see that subordinate clauses can either come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When subordinate clauses come at the end of the sentence, you don't use a comma. However, when a subordinate clause comes at the beginning of the sentence, you set it off with a comma.

Introductory Prepositional Phrases

Why should you put a comma after prepositional phrases?

An introductory prepositional phrase sets the scene for the main phrase. It is often to do with time or location, e.g. In the evening or In 2022. An introductory prepositional phrase starts with a preposition (words like in, on, after, before). For short introductory phrases (fewer than four words), you can choose to add a comma or not. For longer phrases, you should always use a comma.

Short prepositional phrase:

Correct: In the Spring let’s go to Mexico.
Correct: In the Spring, let’s go to Mexico.

Longer phrase:

Correct: On the first day of his holiday, Jimmy wanted to go sailing.
Incorrect: On the first day of his holiday Jimmy wanted to go sailing.

Note: you might also find these prepositional phrases in the middle of sentences after a conjunction, e.g. He went to bed, and in the morning, he wanted to go sailing. For these, you should follow the same rules as if they came at the beginning of a sentence.

Cohesion

Cohesion means linking words that help you connect ideas. It also relates to how sentences are linked together to form a meaningful paragraph and how paragraphs are linked together to form an essay.

Quick Tips to Follow that shows your Cohesive Skill in your Essay

Focus only on 1 point in each paragraph to enhance clarity
Write Complex Sentences with appropriate use of Punctuations
Link your ideas with Syntax instead of making excessive use of Linking phrases

For your essay to be cohesive, you must ensure that you don't mix up more than one idea in a single paragraph. Instead, you should focus on one particular point, elaborate on it, and it is always recommended to provide a suitable example in support of that point.

Though writing complex sentences is advisable for the academic writing, you must use them wisely. There is a fine line between 'Complex sentences' and 'Complicated sentences.' Do make sure you present your thoughts without making the sentences hard to read or understand, in other words, complicated. Furthermore, proper punctuation can also help you in framing complex sentences.

Example:

Complex Sentence: All my friends enjoyed the movie, however, I didn't enjoy it.

Complicated Sentence: My friends and I went to a movie, but, I did not find it great though they all liked it very much.

Cohesive Devices are used to signify the relationship between different clauses, sentences and paragraphs.

What are Cohesive Devices?

Connectors, linking words, phrases, and transitional words are the Cohesive Devices that you can use in your Essay.

Here are some examples of Cohesive Devices that you can use in academic writing.

Adding Ideas: 'furthermore', 'in addition to'
Contrasting Ideas: 'however', 'on the other hand', 'let's not forget the fact that'
Stating Examples: 'for instance', 'for example', 'to illustrate this'
Explaining Results: 'consequently', 'as a result'
Maintaining the Sequence: 'firstly', 'next', 'to begin with'
Providing Explanations: 'because of', 'due to'
Concluding Ideas: 'in conclusion', 'to sum up'
Introducing your Point: 'another point that I would like to add', 'in my opinion'

Note: Never overdo with Cohesive Devices.

You must avoid the use of excessive connectors in a single paragraph. With too many linking words, your writing will not sound natural and fluent. It may also confuse the examiner while reading your essay.

An alternative to prevent unnecessary connectors is to use pronouns and dependent clauses to fulfil your purpose. Use Cohesive Devices Correctly and in Right Quantity.

Commonly Misspelt Words

English words can be tricky to spell, as they are not always spelt like they sound. Sometimes you just have to memorise them.

According to the Macmillan Dictionary, these are the 50 most frequently misspelt words in English. These are all commonly used words, so it would be very worthwhile to learn their correct spelling.

The correct spelling is on the right.

accomodation >

adress >

accomodate >

wether > /

rehersal >

commited >

persue >

occurence >

lenght >

strenght >

seperate >

appaling >

tought > /

throught >

Commas in Complex Sentences

Complex sentences are sentences that have two clauses. They can have two independent clauses (each having a subject and predicate), or an independent clause and dependent clause (missing a subject or predicate). Whether a comma is used between them depends on the types and positions of the clauses.

An independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own as a sentence.

Example: I have a dog.

Example: It has a fluffy tail.

Often, two independent clauses can be joined with a conjunction, such as and, but, or, so, yet, or any other conjunction. A comma is placed right before the conjunction in this type of complex sentence.

Example: I have a dog, and it has a fluffy tail.

It is important to include a conjunction in the complex sentence above because without it, you will have committed a punctuation error often referred to as a comma splice.

Incorrect: I have a dog, it has a fluffy tail.

A dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand as a sentence in its own right, such as before I went home. When a complex sentence contains a dependent clause like this one, a comma is not used unless the dependent clause comes before the independent clause.

Example: Before I went home, I checked to make sure I had my keys.

If the positions of the clauses were reversed, with the independent clause first, there would be no comma in the sentence.

Example: I checked to make sure I had my keys before I went home.

Unnecessary Commas in Complex Sentences

Generally, if the dependent clause comes second in a complex sentence, a comma is not used.

Incorrect: I need to get a job, because I have run out of money.

Correct: I need to get a job because I have run out of money.

The second clause, because I have run out of money, is dependent; there is no need to use a comma between the two clauses.

Incorrect: It makes no sense to study French, if you are not going to France.

Correct: It makes no sense to study French if you are not going to France.

Correct: If you are not going to France, it makes no sense to study French.

In the last example, the dependent clause was used before the independent clause, so a comma was placed in this complex sentence.

Incorrect: I’ll turn the light off and sleep, when I can no longer keep my eyes open.

This sentence contains an unnecessary comma.

Correct: I’ll turn the light off and sleep when I can no longer keep my eyes open.

Exception: If the sentence is confusing or ambiguous without a comma, one may be used for purposes of clarity.

Example: Maggie didn’t call Alphonse because she was angry.

There are two ways to interpret this sentence. One possibility is that Maggie did call Alphonse, and her reason for calling was not that she was angry. The other possibility is that Maggie did not call Alphonse, and the reason she didn’t call is that she was angry. A comma removes the ambiguity.

Example: Maggie didn’t call Alphonse, because she was angry.

A or An?

When to Say a or an

The indefinite article is a or an. But how do we know when to say a and when to say an?

The rule is really very simple. It depends on the SOUND at the start of the following word. (It does not depend on the way we WRITE the following word, it depends on the way we SAY it.)

a + consonant SOUND

If the following word starts with a consonant SOUND, then we say a :

a dog
a game of tennis
a human error
a Norwegian
a very big stick

an + vowel SOUND

If the following word starts with a vowel SOUND, then we say an :

an antelope
an easy climb
an interesting suggestion
an old dog
an umbrella

The Importance of SOUND

Normally, we pronounce consonant letters with a consonant sound, and vowel letters with a vowel sound. But there are some exceptions. The rule about a or an is still the same. You just need to think about the SOUND, not the WRITING. Look at these examples:

Quotes

The two most important things to remember when including a quotation (i.e. someone else's words) into your own writing are: 1) cite your source and 2) work the quoted passage into the grammar of your own sentence.

1. Cite your Source

This means that any time you reference someone else's words, you need to give credit where it's due. If you are unsure of whether something is common knowledge (ie. so obvious you don't have to cite it) or whether the idea was first raised by someone else, take the cautious approach. It's better to cite unnecessarily than to not cite at all.

When it comes to direct quotations, it's even more obvious that you must cite. This is where citation format - APA, MLA, Chicago Manual of Style, etc. - comes into play. Some instructors prefer footnotes, some endnotes, some parenthetical notation, and some a combination of the two. No matter what format your instructor wants, remember to cite your source and show where a quotation comes from!

2. Work the Quoted Passage into the Grammar of your own Sentence

When you find a really great quotation to support the point you are making in your writing, it's best if you can integrate it into your own sentence. Do not just lump it in on its own. For instance, Aldous Huxley writes: "Words can be like X-rays if you use them properly ," and goes on to assert that words will "go through anything." Do you see what I did there? I took the main quotation from Huxley -- "Words can be like X-rays if you use them properly -- they'll go through anything" -- and then I worked it into my own sentence.

Here's an example...

Example Quotation: "Let me live, love, and say it well in good sentences," Sylvia Plath, The Unabridged Journals of Sylvia Plath

Example Integration: In The Unabridged Journals of Sylvia Plath, poet Plath exclaims: "Let me live, love, and say it well in good sentences," demonstrating the core importance of writing to her identity.

Too Many "and's"

Avoid Overusing the Word "and"

When the word "and" is overused, a piece of writing begins to sound overly simplistic and repetitive. In order to cut down on the number of times that the word "and" is used, one useful challenge for writers is to try to use the word no more than two times in any single sentence, and no more than six times in a single paragraph. One way to reduce the number of unnecessary times that the word "and" is used in a sentence is to think critically about how the word is best used. "And" is a connective word, which is used to link together phrases or clauses or words of equal value. Accordingly, writers should use the word "and" when making a list, but not when making an argument. Words that advance an argument include "therefore" or "so" or "however." Here is a simple example of how to change a sentence to reduce the number of "and's" –

"It is dark and rainy outside and driving is currently dangerous."

Alternatives could be –

"It is dark and rainy outside, so driving is currently dangerous."
"It is dark and rainy outside, therefore driving is currently dangerous.
"Driving is currently dangerous because it is dark and rainy outside."

Contractions

What is a contraction?

A contraction is a shortened form of a word (or group of words) that leaves out certain letters or sounds. In most contractions, an apostrophe represents the missing letters. The most common contractions are made up of verbs, auxiliaries, or modals attached to other words, for example –

He would = He’d. I have = I’ve. They are = They’re. You cannot = You can’t.

When to use contractions

Contractions are commonly used in speech, but in writing they’re usually considered to be relatively casual. If you’re writing something very formal, you may want to avoid using them.

Academic Writing

Lift your writing up a notch by finding and learning stronger words. Thanks to

Key Characteristics of Academic Writing

While specific requirements may vary based on the particular form of academic writing or the class or publication for which a work is produced, some characteristics are common to all academic writing.

formal tone - A formal tone is always used in academic writing. It is not light-hearted or conversational in tone. Slang and clichés do not belong in this type of writing.
precise language - In keeping with the formal tone, it’s important to choose precise language that very clearly conveys the author’s meaning.
point-of-view (POV) - Academic writing is usually written in because its focus is to educate on the facts rather than to support an opinion or give advice.
research focus - Because most academic writing involves reporting research results, it tends to focus on the specific research question(s) being studied.
organization - Academic writing should be organized logically in a linear, matter-of-fact fashion. Use headings to delineate each major section.
source citations - Most academic writing includes at least some . Be sure to properly cite all sources and .

Of course, individual assignments may sometimes have different requirements. Always review submission guidelines carefully to verify you are following the proper format and style.

TIPS on how to write 'academically'

1. Use ACTIVE VOICE

Don't say: "The stepmother's house was cleaned by Cinderella." (Passive.)

Say instead: "Cinderella cleaned the stepmother's house." (Active voice.)

Passive voice construction ("was cleaned") is reserved for those occasions where the "do-er" of the action is unknown.

Example: "Prince Charming saw the glass slipper that was left behind."

2. Mix it up in terms of PUNCTUATION

Here are a few commonly misused punctuation marks that a lot of people aren't sure about:

The semi-colon (;) separates two complete sentences that are complementary.

Example: "She was always covered in cinders from cleaning the fireplace; they called her Cinderella."

The colon (:) is used...

a. preceding a list.

Example: "Before her stepmother awoke, Cinderella had three chores to complete: feeding the chickens, cooking breakfast, and doing the wash." 

b. as a sort of "drum roll," preceding some big revelation.

Example: "One thing fuelled the wicked stepmother's hatred for Cinderella: jealousy."  

The dash (--) is made by typing two hyphens (-). No spaces go in between the dash and the text. It is used...

a. to bracket off some explanatory information.

Example: "Even Cinderella's stepsisters-who were not nearly as lovely or virtuous as Cinderella--were allowed to go to the ball." 

b. in the "drum roll" sense of the colon.

Example: "Prince Charming would find this mystery lady--even if he had to put the slipper on every other girl in the kingdom."  

3. Word choice - find stronger words

Writing academically is actively thinking about using more diverse words than the most common 2000 words in English. There has been a lot of research into academic words that has identified 10 levels of sophistication, obviously starting at 1 and going up to 10.

Examples of Level 1 : area

Example of Level 6 : aggregating

Example of Level 10 : assemblies

Scribo links an academic word list to your writing and tracks the academic words you have used, across levels. You can look up academic word choices anytime and search for stronger words.

It is a good strategy to fond and use stronger words, just don't make your word choices too complicated for the sake of lifting your levels. Always think about your audience and how readable your end result is. Obviously learning more academic words as part of your repertoire is the best way forwards. You will find the more words you learn and use naturally in sentences, the more sophisticated and readable your sentences will become.

4. Vary your SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Don't say: "Cinderella saw her fairy godmother appear. She was dressed in blue. She held a wand. The wand had a star on it. She was covered in sparkles. Cinderella was amazed. She asked who the woman was. The woman said, 'I am your fairy godmother.' She said she would get Cinderella a dress and a coach. She said she would help Cinderella go to the ball."

Instead say: (there are multiple correct ways to rewrite this, but here's one) "Amazed, Cinderella watched as her fairy godmother appeared. The woman dressed in blue was covered in sparkles and carried a star-shaped wand. Cinderella asked the woman who she was, to which the woman replied, 'I am your fairy godmother." The fairy godmother would get Cinderella a dress and a coach; she would help Cinderella get to the ball."

5. Avoid CHOPPINESS

Don't say: "She scrubbed the floors. They were dirty. She used a mop. She sighed sadly. It was as if she were a servant ."

Instead say : (there are multiple ways to do this) "She scrubbed the dirty floors using a mop, as if she were a servant. She sighed sadly."

6. Avoid REPETITION.

Don't say: "The stepsisters were jealous and envious ."

Instead say : "The stepsisters were jealous ." (...or envious. Pick one.)

7. Be CONCISE

Don't say: "The mystery lady was one who every eligible man at the ball admired."

Instead say : "Every eligible man at the ball admired the mystery lady."

8. Use the VOCABULARY that you know.

Don't always feel you have to use big words. It is always better to be clear and use simple language rather than showing off flashy words you aren't sure about and potentially misusing them. This is not to say, however, that you should settle for very weak vocabulary choices (like "bad" or "big" or "mad").

9. Work on expanding your VOCABULARY.

Check the advanced word list in Scribo and make sure you click on words to find synonyms. Each Noun, Adjective, Verb and Adverb in Scribo is rated as level 1 - 6 ( 6 being highest). Check out other words, and look into the level of words you are choosing. Lift your word choices and check the different results you get.

10. Keep language FORMAL and avoid language of everyday speech.

Don't say: "Cinderella was mellow and good. She never let her stepmother get to her ."

Say instead: "Cinderella was mild-mannered and kind. She never let her stepmother affect her high spirits ."

So, essentially, when it comes to working on style, there are three things to remember:

Empower yourself with knowledge.

Learn to punctuate correctly, enhance your vocabulary, etc. Give yourself all the tools there are so that you are free to...

Mix it up!

Avoid repetition of words and sentence structure. Variance promotes good "flow" and is more interesting for your reader.

"Write to EXPRESS, not to IMPRESS."

Above all, write actively, clearly, and concisely.

Strategies to improve readability

Thanks to https://readable.com/blog/7-proofreading-strategies-for-readability/

Creating readable content takes work and attention to detail. Scribo finds the sentences that need the most attention.

Here are 7 strategies to simplify your writing and improve the readability of what you write:

1. Use short, easy words.

The more syllables your words have, the harder they are to read. Don’t use a 4-syllable word if a 2-syllable word works just as well. Also, consider that not everyone has the same vocabulary as you. If you use words like “inchoate” or “inordinate,” you’re going to lose most of your readers. Scribo helps you pick shorter words by suggesting synonyms to give you a great alternative. Right click a word!

2. Shorten your sentences.

Keeping your sentences short will correct convoluted sentences, increasing readability.

If you have long sentences in your copy, try breaking them up into several short sentences. Do this by focusing on the principle of ‘one idea per sentence’. Do you have more than one idea in a sentence? Starting a new sentence instead is a good rule of thumb.

Look for the ‘very long sentences’ count within your readability results. Clicking on this count will help you navigate through the sentences which take priority in your initial edits.

3. Lose some of your adjectives and adverbs.

Adjectives and adverbs, also called “modifiers”, slightly alter the meaning of a noun or verb.

That modification process requires the brain to do extra work. Unless your adverbs or adjectives are vital to the meaning of a sentence, cut them.

4. Drop the jargon.

Most occupations use language that’s not used by the general public. Remember who your audience is when you’re writing.

Unless you’ll only be read by people in your profession, replace insider jargon with the layperson terms.

5. Use reader-friendly fonts.

You might be tempted to use “fancy” fonts (like Papyrus) to make your writing look more authoritative. Sadly, they make your text less readable.

Use fonts that are easy on the eye, including Times New Roman, Arial, Helvetica, and Open Sans. There’s a reason these fonts are widely used on webpages.

6. Break up your copy.

Just as long words and long sentences tend to compromise readability, overly long paragraphs tend to confuse and frustrate readers.

Break up your copy using helpful headers and bulleted lists.

7. Scribo tests your writing using readability formulas. Aim for grade level 7 or 8.

A reading grade of 8 is the average for the general public.

This means you’re making your writing more readable and accessible to a wider readership.

There are a few popular readability formulas we use to test the readability of your writing, including:

Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease. This mathematical formula measures the average number of syllables per word and the average number of words per sentence. The results appear as a score from 1 to 100, where 1 is the hardest to read and 100 is the easiest. In general, you want to see a score between 60 and 70.
Gunning-Fog Score. Gunning-Fog looks at complex words (defined as those with 3 or more syllables), as well as proper nouns, jargon and compound words. Like Flesch-Kincaid, it renders results as a grade level, but in this case with no upper limit. As an example, the New York Times scores an 11-12 in Gunning-Fog, while highly complex technical documents could easily score as high as 15. The ideal score is a 7 or 8.
Coleman-Liau Index. This formula looks at the number of characters, rather than words or syllables. Results appear as a grade level, from 1 to 12. As with the tests above, the recommended Grade Level is 7 or 8.

Improving readability makes your writing stronger, trimming it down to its essentials and cutting out excess. This enhances the integrity and authority of your writing.

The more readable your copy is, the more interesting it is.

Correcting Sentence Fragments

Jennifer Betts -https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/sentences/sentence-fragments.html

An Easy How-to Guide

Fix fragmented sentences using a few simple tips. Get a clear idea of how to identify a fragment sentence in writing. Then, explore why some writers use sentence fragments to create a more conversational tone.

What Is a Sentence Fragment?

A sentence fragment is a group of words that look like a sentence, but they aren’t. Why? Because to be a complete sentence, every sentence must contain three components:

The sentence must express a complete thought; we need to know what it's about.
The sentence must : a person or thing that the sentence is about. This is usually a , a or a .
The sentence must express an action. This is usually a .

If a sentence lacks one or more of these three essential components, it’s called a sentence fragment. The first step in learning how to correct a sentence fragment is knowing how to identify them.

Defining Characteristics of a Sentence Fragment

Before you can fix a sentence fragment, it's important to look at a few examples of sentence fragments. Use this checklist to help you understand different types of sentence fragments.

It lacks a subject. For example: Eating chicken. This sentence is lacking a subject - who or what is eating chicken?
It doesn't have a verb expressing an action. For example: A book without a cover. What about a book without a cover? Is the book doing something? Is someone doing something to the book? We don't know because there is no verb.
It doesn't express a complete thought. For example: For example, milk and eggs. This sentence is lacking a complete thought — what are the milk and eggs examples of?
It's a dependent clause standing alone. For example: Because I went to the store. The conjunction "because" makes this clause dependent. A can't stand alone; it needs to be attached to an .

How to Fix a Fragment Sentence

Fixing sentence fragments depends on what it's lacking. Use these quick fixes to help make your sentences complete.

1. Add the Missing Parts

Add a subject or verb to complete the thought.

Sentence Fragment - Enjoying his latest self-development book.
Complete Sentence - Roland was enjoying his latest self-development book.

2. Join Clauses

Join the dependent clause with an independent clause to complete the thought.

Sentence Fragment - Because her puppy got sick.
Complete Sentence - Kelly was late for work because her puppy got sick.

In this example, you can also remove the subordinating word to complete the thought. Either a period or semicolon would work in the corrected thought.

Sentence Fragment: Kelly was late. Because her puppy got sick.
Complete Sentence: Kelly was late. ~~Because~~ Her puppy got sick.
Complete Sentence: Kelly was late; ~~because~~ her puppy got sick.

3. Rewrite the Sentence

Rewrite the sentence that isn’t making a complete thought.

Sentence Fragment: He ran through the door. Clenching his water bottle. When he reached the crib, he saw that the baby was okay.
Complete Sentence: He ran through the door. His hands clenched his water bottle. When he reached the crib, he saw that the baby was okay.

Intentional Sentence Fragments

Are sentence fragments always bad? The short answer to this question is no. However, don’t say that to your English teacher. While you want to avoid sentence fragments in formal situations, authors and media writers use sentence fragments intentionally in writing to make it more conversational. Sentence fragments are also extremely common in speech. Therefore, while it’s important to make sure to use complete sentences for your English paper, some sentence fragments you see in the world aren’t always errors.

Noun groups / phrases

Nouns with pre-modifiers and post-modifiers make a noun chunk or phrase. When you have a few of these in one sentence, things get complicated to read.

Noun phrases

Be aware of how pre and post words (modifiers) build up noun groups / phrases. Sometimes the build up of modifiers makes the sentence harder to read. You can chop out words you don't need to simplify your sentences.

Often a noun phrase is just a noun or a pronoun:

People like to have money. I am tired.

Premodifiers

But noun phrases can also include:

determiners: Those houses are very expensive.
quantifiers: I've lived in a lot of houses.
numbers: My brother owns two houses.
adjectives: I love old houses.

These parts of the noun phrase are called premodifiers because they go before the noun.

We use premodifiers in this order:

For example:

Post-modifiers

Other parts of a noun phrase go after the noun. These are called post-modifiers.

Post-modifiers can be:

prepositional phrases:

a man with a gun the boy in the blue shirt the house on the corner

the man standing over there the boy talking to Angela

the man we met yesterday the house that Jack built the woman who discovered radium an eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop

that clauses. These are very common after nouns like idea, fact, belief, suggestion:

He's still very fit, in spite of the fact that he's over eighty. She got the idea that people didn't like her. There was a suggestion that the children should be sent home.

I've got no decent shoes to wear.

These are very common after indefinite pronouns and adverbs:

You should take something to read. I need somewhere to sleep.

There may be more than one post-modifier:

an eight-year old boy with a gun who tried to rob a sweet shop that girl over there in a green dress drinking a Coke

What to do

Readability suffers when three words that are ordinarily separate nouns follow in succession. Once you get past three, the string becomes unbearable.

Technically, clustering nouns turns all but the last noun into adjectives. However, many users will think they’ve found the noun when they’re still reading adjectives, and will become confused.

Bring these constructions under control by eliminating descriptive words that aren’t essential. If you can’t do that, open up the construction by using more prepositions and articles to clarify the relationships among the words.